Unit 6
Biodiversity Conservation at Global, National and Local Levels

Learning Outcomes

Prerequisites

Key words

Biodiversity, Conservation, Convergence evolution, National parks, Wildlife Sanctuaries, Bio-sphere reserves,

Discussion

2.6.1 Biodiversity at global, national and local levels

The earth’s biodiversity is distributed in specific ecological regions. There are over a thou-sand major ecoregions in the world. Of these, 200 are said to be the richest, rarest and most distinctive natural areas. These areas are referred to as the Global 200. It has been estimated that 50,000 endemic plants which comprise 20% of global plant life, probably occur in only 18 ‘hot spots’ in the world. Countries which have a relatively large proportion of these hot spots of diversity are referred to as ‘mega diversity nations’ The rate at which the extinction of species is occurring through-out India remains obscure. It is likely to be extremely high as India’s wilderness areas are shrinking rapidly. Our globally accepted national ‘hot spots’ are in the forests of the North-East and the Western Ghats, which are included in the world’s most biorich areas. The Andaman and Nicobar Islands are extremely rich in species and many subspecies of different animals and birds have evolved. Among the endemic species i.e., those species found only in India, and a large proportion of them are concentrated in these three areas.

Ecosystems are divided into terrestrial or land based ecosystems, and aquatic ecosystems in water. These form the two major habitat conditions for the Earth’s living organisms. All the living organisms in an area live in com-munities of plants and animals. They interact with their non-living environment, and with each other at different points in time for a large number of reasons. Life can exist only in a small portion of the earth’s land, water and its atmosphere. At a global level the thin skin of the earth on the land, the sea and the air, forms the biosphere. There are several distinctive geographical regions in India- the Himalayas, the Gangetic Plains, the Highlands of Central India, the Western and Eastern Ghats, the Semi-arid desert in the West, the Deccan Plateau, the Coastal Belts, and the Andaman and Nicobar Islands. These geographically distinctive areas have plants and animals that have been adapted to live in each of these regions. Ecosystems have both non-living and living components typical to an area giving it its own special characteristics that are easily observed. The living community of plants and animals in any area together with the non-living components of the environment such as soil, air and water, constitute the ecosystem. Some ecosystems are fairly robust and are less affected by a certain level of human disturbance. Others are highly fragile and are quickly destroyed by human activities. Mountain ecosystems are extremely fragile as degradation of forest cover leads to severe erosion of soil and changes in river courses. Island ecosystems are easily affected by any form of human activity which can lead to the rapid extinction of several of their unique species of plants and animals. Evergreen forests and coral reefs are also examples of species rich fragile ecosystems which must be protected against a variety of human activities that lead to their degradation. River and wetland eco-systems can be seriously affected by pollution and changes in surrounding land use.

There are at present 1.8 million species known and documented by scientists in the world. However, scientists have estimated that the number of species of plants and animals on earth could vary from 1.5 to 20 billion. Thus the majority of species are yet to be discovered. Most of the world’s biorich nations are in the South, which are the developing nations. In contrast, the majority of the countries capable of exploiting biodiversity are the Northern nations, in the economically developed world. These nations however have low levels of biodiversity. Hence, the developed world has come to support the concept that biodiversity must be considered to be a ‘global resource’.
Countries with diversities higher than India are located in South America such as Brazil, and South East Asian countries such as Malaysia and Indonesia. The species found in these countries, however, are different from what India has.

Throughout the world, the value of biologically rich natural areas is now being increasingly appreciated as being of unimaginable value. International agreements such as the World Heritage Convention attempt to protect and support such areas. India is a signatory to the convention and has included several protected Areas as World Heritage sites. These include Manas on the border between Bhutan and India, Kaziranga in Assam, Bharatpur in U.P., Nandadevi in the Himalayas, and the Sunderbans in the Ganges delta in West Bengal. India has also signed the Convention in the Trade of Endangered Species (CITES) which is in-tended to reduce the utilization of endangered plants and animals by controlling trade in their products and in the pet trade.

Conservation is the planned management of natural resources, to retain the balance in nature and retain the diversity. It also includes wise use of natural resources in such a way that the needs of present generation are met and at the same time leaving enough for the future generations. “Biodiversity conservation refers to the protection, upliftment, and management of biodiversity in order to derive sustainable benefits for present and future generations.” Biodiversity conservation is the protection and management of biodiversity to obtain resources for sustainable development. Conservation of biodiversity is important to:-

1. prevent the loss of genetic diversity of a species,
2. save a species from becoming extinct, and
3. protect ecosystems’ damage and degradation

Convergent evolution: is when two species with different ancestral origins develop similar characteristics, while divergent evolution refers to when two species diverge from a common ancestor and develop different characteristics.

Conservation efforts can be grouped into the following category:

In situ (on-site) conservation includes the protection of plants and animals within their natural habitats or in protected areas. Protected areas are land or sea dedicated to protect and maintain biodiversity. In this method, the natural ecosystem is maintained and protected. The in situ conservation has several advantages. Following are the important advantages of in situ conservation:

1. It is a cost-effective and convenient method of conserving biodiversity.
2. A large number of living organisms can be conserved simultaneously.
3. Since the organisms are in a natural eco-system, they can evolve better and can easily adjust to different environmental conditions.

Certain protected areas where in situ conservation takes place include national parks, wildlife sanctuaries and biosphere reserves.

2.6.2 National Parks

These are small reserves maintained by the governments. Its boundaries are well demarcated and human activities such as grazing, forestry, habitat and cultivation are prohibit-ed. For eg., Kanha National Park, Bandipur National Park. “National Parks are the areas that are set by the government to conserve the natural environment.” National parks are areas that aim to protect the natural environment. They are also involved in public recreation and enjoyment activities. India has currently over 100 national parks distributed across the country, stretching across various biomes. The Hailey National Park is the first national park in India. It is one of the finest examples of ecological conservation. The other national parks in India include:

Table 2.6.1 National Parks in India

All these national parks are abodes to a large number of wild animals because of the optimum environmental conditions with proper upbringing and breeding facilities. The significant terrestrial ecosystem coming along the IndoMalayan ecozone consists of temperate, polar, wet, dry regions for different kind of species to live. The species include elephant, tiger, cobra, crocodile, apes, sambar deer, spotted deer, rhinoceros, goats, lions along with different types of flora and fauna. Indian wildlife has around 99 world-recognized national parks in different parts of the country. All these national parks and the wildlife re-serves have been recognized by the IUCN or the International Union for the Conservation of Nature under the second category of protected areas.

2.6.3 Wildlife Sanctuaries

These are the regions where only wild animals are found. Human activities such as timber harvesting, cultivation, collection of wood and other forest products are allowed here as long as they do not interfere with the conservation project. Also, tourists visit these places for recreation. Sanctuaries are naturally occurring areas that are meant to protect the endangered species from hunting, poaching and predation. Here the animals are not bred for commercial purposes. It provides a safe, healthy and secured refuge to all the wild animals. A wild-life sanctuary is an area where animal habitats and their surroundings are protected from any sort of disturbance. The capturing, killing and poaching of animals is strictly prohibited in these regions. They aim at providing a comfortable living to the animals.

There are a number of reasons for establishing wildlife sanctuaries. Some of the reasons are listed below:

• The wildlife sanctuaries are established to protect the endangered species.
• It is quite difficult to always re-locate the animals from their natural habitat; therefore, protecting them in their natural environment is advantageous.
• The endangered species are specially monitored in the wildlife sanctuaries. If they reproduce and grow in number while under protection, a few specimens can be kept for breeding in the conservation parks for their survival.
• Biologist activities and researches are permitted in the wildlife sanctuaries so that researchers can learn about the animals living there.
• A few sanctuaries take in injured and abandoned animals and rehabilitate them to health before re-leasing them in the forest.
• Wildlife sanctuaries preserve the endangered species and protect them from humans and predators. Tourism is not permitted in a wildlife sanctuary. People are not allowed unescorted there. The main objective of establishing a wildlife sanctuary is to educate humans as to how to treat the animals. The animals are taken care of and allowed to live peacefully in their natural habitats.

Table 2.6.2 Wildlife sanctuaries in India

2.6.4 Biosphere Reserves

Biosphere reserves are multi-purpose protected areas where the wildlife, traditional lifestyle of the inhabitants and domesticated plants and animals are protected. Tourist and research activities are permitted here. Biosphere reserves are the protected areas meant for the conservation of plants and animals. It also restores the traditional life of the tribals living in that area. They conserve the biodiversity of that area.
There are three biosphere reserve zones:

Core Zone: This is a legally protected area where human intervention is strictly prohibited. It is the innermost undisturbed ecosystem. The information from these areas helps to assess the sustainability of activities, or maintenance of environmental quality in the surrounding areas.

Buffer zone: The area surrounding the core zone is the buffer zone. Here only the research and education activities are permitted to humans. These activities should not obstruct the conservation objectives of the core area. This area also includes activities that help to manage natural vegetation, agricultural land, fisheries, or forests to enhance the quality of production.

This zone might also include recreation and tourism facilities. Human activities are less intensive in this zone as compared to the transition zone.

Transition Zone: It is the peripheral area of a biosphere reserve where human activities like cropping, recreation, forestry, and settlements are permitted with the cooperation of reserve management and local people. Through these activities, the degraded area is brought back to its natural form. The local communities, scientists, conservation agencies, cultural groups, and other stakeholders work in this zone to use the area in a sustainable way for the welfare of humans living there. There are 18 Bio-sphere Reserves in India established by the government that protect large areas of natural habitats. These areas are provided with the buffer zones that are open for some economic uses. Not only the flora and fauna but also the humans inhabiting these areas are protected. The Biosphere Reserves are identified by the Man and Biosphere Reserve Program to pro-mote sustainable development. This program was initiated by UNESCO in 1971.

Table 2.6.3 Biosphere Reserves in India

2. Ex-situ (off-site) conservation of plants and animals outside their natural habitats. These include botanical gardens, zoo, gene banks, seek bank, tissue culture and cryopreservation. Ex-situ conservation of biodiversity involves the breeding and maintenance of endangered species in artificial ecosystems such as zoos, nurseries, botanical gardens, gene banks, etc. There is less competition for food, water and space among the organisms.

Ex-situ conservation has the following advantages:

1. The animals are provided with a longer time and breeding activity.
2. The species bred in captivity can be reintroduced in the wild.
3. Genetic techniques can be used for the preservation of endangered specie

Ex- situ conservation literally means, ‘off-site conservation’. It is the process of protecting an endangered species of plant or animal by removing part of the population from a threatened habitat and placing it in a new location, which may be a wild area or within the care of humans. While ex- situ conservation comprises some of the oldest and best known conservation methods, it also involves newer, sometimes controversial laboratory methods.

There are two ways or modes of Ex- situ conservation.

1. Conventional methods
2. Biotechnological methods

Gene Banks

Plant genetic resources gene banks store, maintain and reproduce living samples of the world’s huge diversity of crop varieties and their wild relatives. They ensure that the varieties and landraces of the crops and their wild relatives that underpin our food supply are both secure in the long term and available for use by farmers, plant breeders and researchers. Gene banks conserve genetic resources. The most fundamental activity in a gene bank is to treat a new sample in a way that will prolong its viability as long as possible while ensuring its quality. The samples (or accessions as they are called) are monitored to ensure that they are not losing viability. A cornerstone of gene bank operations is the reproduction-called regeneration-of its plant material. Plant samples must periodically be grown out, regenerated, and new seed harvested because, even under the best of conservation conditions, samples will eventually die. To conserve and regenerate genetic resources, gene banks first must collect genetic resources. But gene banks aren’t built just to conserve genetic resources; they are intended to ensure that these resources are used, whether it is in farmers’ fields, breeding programmes or in research institutions. This means making sure the collections are properly characterized and documented; and that the documentation is available to those who need it.

Biodiversity at all its levels, genetic species and as intact ecosystems, can be best preserved in-situ by setting aside an adequate representation of wilderness as ‘Protected Areas’. These should consist of a network of National Parks and Wildlife Sanctuaries with each distinctive ecosystem included in the network. Such a network would preserve the total diversity of life of a region. In the past National Parks and Sanctuaries in India were notified to preserve major wildlife species such as tigers, lions, elephants, and deer. The objective of these areas should be expanded to the preservation of relatively intact natural ecosystems, where biological diversity from microscopic unicellular plants and animals, to the giant trees and major mammals.

Botanical gardens

Botanical gardens and zoos are the most conventional methods of ex- situ conservation, all of which house whole, protected specimens for breeding and reintroduction into the wild when necessary and possible. These facilities provide not only housing and care for specimens of endangered species, but also have an educational value.

Seed Bank

Undeniably, the most cost-effective method of providing plant genetic resources for long- term ex-situ conservation is through the storage of seeds under very specific conditions. The following techniques well developed for crop plants by organisations such as the International Plant Genetic Resources Institute (IPGRI), previously the International Board of Plant Genetic Resources (IBPGR), and the Food and Agricultural Organisation of the United Nations (FAO). The main advantage of seed banking is that it allows large populations to be preserved and genetic erosion to be minimised by providing optimum conditions and reducing the need for regeneration.

Field Gene banks

Field gene banks or living collections are the main conservation strategy for long-lived perennials, recalcitrant species and vegetatively propagated species. Their main limitation is that they take a great deal of space and are difficult to maintain and protect from natural disasters. They are susceptible to the spread of diseases and may suffer from neglect. Further-more, out-breeders require controlled pollination for regeneration from seed. In many circumstances they are the only available option for the conservation of important germplasm. When displayed, the plants have an important educational value and can easily be accessed for research purposes.

Cryopreservation

It is a process where organelles, cells, tissues, extracellular matrix, organs, or any other biological constructs susceptible to damage caused by unregulated chemical kinetics are preserved by cooling to very low temperatures typically −80 °C using solid carbon dioxide or −196 °C using nitrogen. Cryopreservation methods seek to reach low temperatures without causing additional damage caused by the formation of ice crystals during freezing. In this system stability is imposed by ultra low temperature and storage is at, or close to – 1960C using liquid Nitrogen (or the vapour immediately above it), as practical and convenient oxygen. At such temperature normal cellular chemical reactions do not occur as energy levels are too low to allow sufficient molecular motion to complete the reaction. The majority of the chemical changes that might occur in a cell are therefore, effectively pre-vented and so the cell is stabilized to the maximum extent practically possible. The potential of conservation system for in-vitro material based upon cryogenic storage is therefore, clear and the technique has become relatively widely used.

Project Tiger

Project Tiger was launched by the Government of India with the support of WWF-Inter-national in 1973 and was the first such initiative aimed at protecting this key species and all its habitats. Project Tiger was initiated in nine Tiger Reserves in different ecosystems of the country covering an area of 16339 sq. km. By 2001 the number of Tiger Reserves increased to 27, covering an area of 37761 sq. km. The tiger count climbed from 268 in 1972 in the nine Tiger Reserves, to around 1500 in 1997 in the 23 Tiger Reserves. The Project tiger recognized the fact that tigers cannot be protected in isolation, and that to protect the tiger, its habitat needed to be protected.

Crocodile Conservation

Crocodiles have been threatened as their skin is used for making leather articles. This led to the near extinction of crocodiles in the wild in the 1960s in India.

A Crocodile Breeding and Conservation Program was initiated in 1975 to protect the remaining population of crocodilians in their natural habitat and by creating breeding centres. It is perhaps one of the most successful ex-situ conservation breeding projects in the country. Crocodiles have been extensively bred in over 30 captive breeding centres, zoos and other sites, where successful breeding takes place. Thousands of crocodiles of all three species have been bred and restocked in 20 natural water bodies.

Project Elephant

Project Elephant was launched in 1992 to ensure the long-term survival of a viable population of elephants in their natural habitats in north and north- eastern India and south India. It is being implemented in 12 States. In spite of this, our elephant herds are at threat as their habitat is shrinking and their migration routes are disrupted by human activities However species cannot be protected individually as they are all inter dependent. Thus the whole ecosystem must be protected. The biologist’s view point deals with areas that are relatively species rich, or those where rare, threatened or endangered species are found, or those with ‘endemic’ species which are not found elsewhere. As rare endemic species are found only in a small area, these easily become extinct due to human activity. Such areas must be given an added importance as their biodiversity is a special feature of the region. Animals such as elephants require different types of habitat to feed during different seasons. They utilize open grasslands after the rains when the young grass shoots which are highly nutritious. As the grasses dry, the elephants move into the forest to feed on foliage from the trees. A Protected Area that is meant to protect elephants must therefore be large enough and include diverse habitat types to support a complete complement of inter linked species.

Convergence and divergence in species

Convergent evolution is the process by which two species develop similar features despite not sharing a recent common ancestor. It is independent evolution of similar features in species of different periods or epochs in time. These species have different ancestral origins. For example sharks and dolphins look relatively similar despite being entirely unrelated. Divergent evolution occurs when two separate species evolve differently from a common ancestor. The adaptive radiation of the Darwin finches of the Galapagos are classic examples of divergence in nature.

Recap

Objective type questions

Answer to Objective type questions

Self Assessment Questions

Assignment

Suggested Reading

Reference